Who's in and why? A typology of stakeholder analysis methods for natural resource management

Stakeholder analysis means many things to different people. Various methods and approaches have been developed in different fields for different purposes, leading to confusion over the concept and practice of stakeholder analysis. This paper asks how and why stakeholder analysis should be conducted for participatory natural resource management research. This is achieved by reviewing the development of stakeholder analysis in business management, development and natural resource management. The normative and instrumental theoretical basis for stakeholder analysis is discussed, and a stakeholder analysis typology is proposed. This consists of methods for: i) identifying stakeholders; ii) differentiating between and categorising stakeholders; and iii) investigating relationships between stakeholders. The range of methods that can be used to carry out each type of analysis is reviewed. These methods and approaches are then illustrated through a series of case studies funded through the Rural Economy and Land Use (RELU) programme. These case studies show the wide range of participatory and non-participatory methods that can be used, and discuss some of the challenges and limitations of existing methods for stakeholder analysis. The case studies also propose new tools and combinations of methods that can more effectively identify and categorise stakeholders and help understand their inter-relationships.     

Influence of soil properties and aging on the toxicity of copper on compost worm and barley

Influence of soil properties and aging on Cu partitioning and toxicity was assessed on 10 artificial soils constituted using a statistical design considering pH (5.5 and 7.5), organic matter (1-30% [w/w]), and clay content (5-35% [w/w]). Total Cu as well as water-, CaCl2-, and diethylene triamine pentaacetic acid (DTPA)-extracted Cu fractions were determined for each soil mixture. Ecotoxic effect was assessed by determining growth inhibition of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) and compost worm (Eisenia fetida) mortality. Analyses were repeated after a 16-wk aging period of the soils at pH 7.5 (8 x 2-wk wetting and drying cycle). Results indicated that pH was the main factor controlling Cu partitioning, ahead of organic matter and clay content. Calcium chloride (0.5 M)-extracted Cu fractions showed the best correlation with toxic responses (r = 0.55-0.66; p < 0.05), while total and DTPA-extracted Cu concentrations could not explain differences in toxicity. Direct regressions between toxicity and soil properties (pH, organic matter, and clay content) provided better explanation of variance: r2= 0.50 (p = 0.00006) for compost worm mortality, r2= 0.77 (p < 0.00001) for barley shoot inhibition, and r2= 0.92 (p < 0.00001) for barley root inhibition. Copper toxicity was mainly influenced by pH and, to a lesser extent, by organic matter and clay content. Aging in organic soils revealed a slight reduction in ecotoxicity while an increase was observed in soils with low organic matter content. Further investigation using longer aging periods would be necessary to assess the significance of this observation.     

Effectiveness of Management Interventions to Control Invasion by Rhododendron ponticum

Rhododendron ponticum is an invasive species in many countries, including the United Kingdom, Ireland, Belgium, and France. It poses a serious threat to native flora and fauna, as it is capable of altering entire seminatural communities through its vigorous spread. Control is essential if the conservation value of some communities, such as oak woodland and lowland heath, are to be successfully maintained. Commonly used interventions are herbicide application, herbicide application postcut, and cutting (manual or mechanical) alone. Various techniques have been developed to apply these interventions, but often retreatment of the area is required, increasing the cost of control. Here, we evaluate the effectiveness of some commonly used interventions for R. ponticum control using a systematic review methodology. Eleven studies provided data for statistical analysis. Meta-analyses of captured data show that postcut application of the herbicide Glyphosate or applying the herbicides Metsulfuron-methyl or Imazapyr (no cut) can effectively reduce a R. ponticum stand. There is insufficient available experimental evidence for effectiveness of any other intervention. The systematic review process has demonstrated the lack of replicated studies with controls or long-term monitoring and increases the call for more rigorous monitoring of all conservation management interventions. The quality of experimental evidence of the effectiveness of some interventions contrasts with the acceptance of their use through dissemination of experience. The collection and objective review of experience will require active collaboration of organizations concerned with R. ponticum control.     

Evaluating colloidal phosphorus delivery to surface waters from diffuse agricultural sources

Colloid-facilitated phosphorus (P) delivery from agricultural soils in different hydrological pathways was investigated using a series of laboratory and field experiments. A soil colloidal P test was developed that yields information on the propensity of different soils to release P attached to soil colloids. The relationship between turbidity of soil extracts and total phosphorus (TP) was significant (r2 = 0.996, p < 0.001) across a range of agricultural soils, and a strong positive relationship (r2 = 0.86, p < 0.001) was found between "colloidal P" (H2O-CaCl2 extracts) and turbidity. Linear regression of the proportion of fine clay (<2 microm) for each soil type evaluated against the (H2O-CaCl2) colloidal P fraction gave a weak but positive relationship (r2 = 0.38, p = 0.082). The relative contribution of different particle-size fractions in transporting P in agricultural runoff from grassland soils was evaluated using a randomized plot experiment. A significant difference (p = 0.05) in both TP and reactive phosphorus (RP) in subsurface flow was recorded for different particle-size fractions, with most TP transferred either in association with the 2-microm fraction or with the 0.001-microm or smaller fractions. Total P concentrations in runoff were higher from plots receiving P amendments compared with the zero-P plots; however, these differences were only significant for the >0.45-microm particle-size fractions (p = 0.05), and may be evidence of surface applications of organic and inorganic fertilizers being transferred through the soil either as intact organic colloids or attached to mineral particles. Our results highlight the potential for drainage water to mobilize colloids and associated P during rainfall events.     

Effect of 2,4-D contamination on soil functional stability evaluated using the relative soil stability index (RSSI)

Soil functional stability is the capacity of soil functions to resist and recover from an environmental perturbation and can be used to evaluate soil health. It can be influenced by the presence of xenobiotics such as herbicides. The impact of a fresh 2,4-D contamination (36 mg kg(-1) dry soil) on soil functional stability was evaluated by comparing the capacity of soil enzyme activities to resist and recover from a heat perturbation for both a clean and 2,4-D-contaminated soil. The functional stabilities of the soils (uniform sands, pH 6.9, 7% (w/w) organic matter) were calculated using the relative soil stability index (RSSI). The RSSI scores indicate the proportion of potential enzyme activity the soil retains after a perturbation compared to the potential activity of an unperturbed soil. Six extra-cellular enzyme activities (acid and alkaline phosphatases, arylsulfatase, urease, protease and beta-glucosidase) were monitored in soil microcosms during a 15-day period. During this period, a 60 degrees C heat perturbation was applied to the soil for 24 h. The activities of arylsulfatase and protease were found to be the most stable following heat perturbation obtaining the highest RSSI scores (87% and 77%, respectively). Urease activity showed the lowest RSSI score (38%). Although all enzyme activities were inhibited by the presence of 2,4-D, the RSSI results indicated that contamination lowered the stability of only three enzyme activities (arylsulfatase, beta-glucosidase and urease). The RSSI adequately described resistance, recovery and recovery rate parameters and enabled differentiation between functional stabilities of clean and contaminated soil and between different soil types.     

Transfer of radiocarbon liquid releases from the AREVA La Hague spent fuel reprocessing plant in the English Channel

The recent risk assessment by the North-Cotentin Radioecology Group (, 1999) outlined that (14)C has become one of the major sources of the low dose to man through seafood consumption. It was recommended that more data should be collected about (14)C in the local marine environment. The present study aims to respond to this recommendation. The estimation of (14)C activity in marine species is based on concentration factor values. The values reported here ranged from 1x10(3) to 5x10(3)Bqkg(-1)ww/BqL(-1). A comparison was made between the observed and predicted values. The accuracy of (14)C activity calculations was estimated between underestimation by a factor of 2 and over-estimation by 50% (95% confidence interval). However, the use of the concentration factor parameter is based on the biological and seawater compartments being in steady state. This assumption may not be met at short distances from the point of release of discharges, where rapid changes in seawater concentration may be smoothed out in living organisms due to transfer kinetics. The data processing technique, previously published by Fiévet and Plet (2003. Estimating biological half-lives of radionuclides in marine compartments from environmental time-series measurements. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity 65, 91-107), was used to deal with (14)C transfer kinetics, and carbon half-lives between seawater and a few biological compartments were thus estimated.     

Realistic evaluation as a new way to design and evaluate occupational safety interventions

Recent debates regarding the criteria for evaluating occupational health and safety interventions have focused on the need for incorporating qualitative elements and process evaluation, in addition to attempting to live up to the Cochrane criteria. Reflecting fundamental epistemological conflicts and shortcomings of the Cochrane criteria in evaluating intervention studies, the debate challenges the traditional (quasi-) experimental design and methodology, which are often used within safety research. This article discusses a revised ‘realistic evaluation’ approach as a way to meet these challenges.Evidence from the literature as well as examples from an integrated (leader-based/worker-based) safety intervention study (2008-2010) in a large wood manufacturing company are presented, with focus on the pros and cons of using randomised-controlled-trials and a revised realistic evaluation model.A revised realistic evaluation model is provided which includes factors such as role behaviour, leader and worker motivation, underreporting of accidents/injuries, production pressure, unplanned organisational change and accounting for multilayer effects. These can be attained through qualitative and/or quantitative methods, allowing for the use of realistic evaluation in both large and small scale studies, as well as in systematic reviews. The revised realistic evaluation model offers a promising new way of designing and evaluating occupational safety research. This model can help safety science move forward in setting qualitative and/or quantitative criteria regarding context, mechanisms and processes for single studies and for reviews. Focus is not limited to whether the expected results appear or not, but include suggestions for what works for whom, under what circumstances, in what respects and how.     

From concept to practice: the long road to operationalising protection

For the past two decades, humanitarian actors have been grappling increasingly with the complex issue of protecting civilians. The definition of protection adopted by humanitarians is considered to be too broad to provide effective operational direction. This paper aims to contribute to recent initiatives to operationalise protection. Teasing out a broad typology of humanitarian protection through an examination of the scope, objectives, and strategies of a range of humanitarian actors, it suggests, would result in better identification of gaps and the channelling of efforts to support a system‐wide protection response. Emphasising recent calls for collective analysis as a means of eventuating protection, the paper also draws attention to the contested understanding that may arise concerning solutions to protection crises. Closely entwined with politics, protection defies neat technical solutions. The paper concludes that deepening knowledge of how communities conceive their own interests may provide the basis for a collective protection response.     

Systematic review of conservation interventions to promote voluntary behavior change

Understanding human behavior is vital to developing interventions that effectively lead to proenvironmental behavior change, whether the focus is at the individual or societal level. However, interventions in many fields have historically lacked robust forms of evaluation, which makes it hard to be confident that these conservation interventions have successfully helped protect the environment. We conducted a systematic review to assess how effective nonpecuniary and nonregulatory interventions have been in changing environmental behavior. We applied the Office of Health Assessment and Translation systematic review methodology. We started with more than 300,000 papers and reports returned by our search terms and after critical appraisal of quality identified 128 individual studies that merited inclusion in the review. We classified interventions by thematic area, type of intervention, the number of times audiences were exposed to interventions, and the length of time interventions ran. Most studies reported a positive effect (n = 96). The next most common outcome was no effect (n = 28). Few studies reported negative (n = 1) or mixed (n = 3) effects. Education, prompts, and feedback interventions resulted in positive behavior change. Combining multiple interventions was the most effective. Neither exposure duration nor frequency affected the likelihood of desired behavioral change. Comparatively few studies tested the effects of voluntary interventions on non-Western populations (n = 17) or measured actual ecological outcome behavior (n = 1). Similarly, few studies examined conservation devices (e.g., energy-efficient stoves) (n = 9) and demonstrations (e.g., modeling the desired behavior) (n = 5). There is a clear need to both improve the quality of the impact evaluation conducted and the reporting standards for intervention results.